Genetic Engineering
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\u6587\/Christopher Barnatt
\n\u8bd1\/\u4e0a\u6d77\u8bd1\u9510\u7ffb\u8bd1\u5168\u804cB\u6863\u8bd1\u5458 Jason MA<\/p>\n
Genetic engineering is the science of altering living things by changing the information encoded in their deoxyribonucleic acid or “DNA”. Genetic information is stored in DNA using four different chemicals called adenine, cytosine, guanine and thymine. Abbreviated to the letters “A”, “C”, “G”, and “T”, these base chemicals are coupled together to form the linkages or “base pairs” that hold together the two spirals that comprise every DNA molecule.
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Any organism’s entire genetic sequence is known as its “genome” and contains millions and often billions of DNA base pairs. For example, human DNA contains about three billion. However, rather than working with individual base pairs, genetic engineering is concerned with far larger DNA segments known as genes.
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A Broad Church
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Genetic engineering is a very broad discipline that is best broken down into its areas of practical application in order to be most easily understood. At the highest level, genetic engineering can be sub-divided into the creation of genetically modified (GM) plants, animals and micro-organisms, as well as the application of genetic engineering in healthcare, otherwise known as genetic medicine. In turn, genetic medicine may be usefully sub-divided into the fields of genetic testing, pharmacogenetics, and gene therapy.
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GM Plants
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All forms of genetic modification (GM) take one or more genes from one species and introduce it into the DNA of another in order to create a “transgenic” organism with different characteristics. So, for example, a plant may be made more resistant to disease, drought or pesticides by introducing a foreign gene from another species into its genome.
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One of the first GM plants was created at the University of California in 1986. Here, some tobacco plants were transgenically altered with a gene from a firefly to make them bioluminescent. The result was GM tobacco capable of emitting a glow.
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The first commercial GM plant was the Flavr Savr tomato. Created by Calgene, this was licensed for human consumption in 1994. Specifically, Calgene used “gene silencing” technology to shut down the gene that causes tomatoes to rot, so allowing the GM produce to stay firm for longer after harvest.
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GM Animals
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Transgenic animals have also already been created. Way back in 1986 the first transgenic mice were genetically altered to develop cancer. Since that time the creation of “humanised” transgenic mice and rats for research purposes has also almost become routine.
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A new breed of “enviropig” has also now been transgenically created by the Guelph Transgenic Pig Research Program to produce a more environmentally-friendly form of manure. Back in 1996, the Roslin Institute in Scotland also successfully managed to clone a sheep called “Dolly” by transplanting an udder cell nucleus from one sheep into an empty egg cell from another. Since that time the same technique has been used to clone pigs, dogs and horses.
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Today, we are on the brink of the approval of the first GM creature to enter the human food chain. Created by a company called Aqua Bounty Technologies, the AquAdvantage is a transgenic salmon that has had ocean pout and chinook salmon genes spliced into its DNA. The result is a fish that grows to full size in 18 rather than 36 months.
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GM Micro-organisms
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For centuries natural fermentation processes have been used to produce products including cheese, beer and yoghurt. However, since the birth of genetic engineering in the 1970s, genes have also been spliced between micro-organims in order to enable the creation of products using transgenic E.coli bacterium and other micro-organisms.Today, transgenic E.coli bacterium are used to produce all manner of things including chymosin (as required in the making of cheese), as well as synthetic insulin, human growth hormones, and first generation bioplastics and biofuels.
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Genetic Testing
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Ever since the completion of the Human Genome Project, hopes have been high for the application of genetic engineering in healthcare. While progress has been slower than the media anticipated — and the role of most of the genes in human DNA is far from understood — already more than 1,000 human genetic tests are available. These enable couples who conceive a child using in vitro fertilization (IVF) to have embryos screened for the genetic mutations that cause cystic fibrosis, sickle cell disease, spinal muscular atrophy, and a range of other conditions.
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Major research is also underway into the genetics of cancer. For example the International Cancer Genome Consortium has been set up to generate genetic data on up to fifty of the most common types of cancer. In time, this work should allow doctors to test for and diagnose cancers based on their genetic characteristics. Further into the future, cancer gene therapies may also result.
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Pharmacogenetics
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Pharmacogenetics — also known as pharmacogenomics — is the study of how genes influence a person’s response to drugs. It has always been obvious that different people respond differently to the same medication. However, it has usually not been known why. The promise of pharmacogenetics is to alter this situation by allowing doctors to select treatments based on the genetic makeup of each individual patient.
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Pharmacogenetics will also allow prescriptions to be calculated based on a person’s genetics rather than purely their weight and age. Vaccines will also be able to be genetically targeted, with different strains for different patient DNA profiles. In addition, pharmacogenetics will allow medicines that work very well in some people but cause major side effects in others to be safely brought to market as it will be known who will react badly to them and who will not.
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Gene Therapy
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The ultimate goal of genetic medicine is to cure health complaints at the genetic level. Potentially, several mechanisms exist that could be used to insert additional or replacement genes into a patient’s DNA. These include the use of gene transfer agent viruses known as “vectors” to deliver therapeutic genes to target patient cells. Alternatively, therapeutic genes may be coated with artificial liposomes. These fatty substances adhere to the surface of cells and may therefore encourage attached genes to enter into them.
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The World of the Designer Baby
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Gene therapy and related genetic engineering research in human beings is currently tightly regulated (if to very different degrees in different parts of the world). However, we already live in the world of the designer baby, with IVF now widely used to help some couples conceive. Indeed, in the UK, about one child in fifty is now born as a result of IVF. Babies conceived via IVF are also routinely screened for genetic diseases. With certain embryos then consciously selected for implantation, human choices are thereby already being made regarding the characteristics of resultant children.
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